It therefore provides a continuation of the research initiated by Jasso and Webster (1997, 1999) with new empirical evidence. The U.S gender pay gap in the 1990: slowing convergence. A new representation of the just term in distributive-justice theory: its properties and operation in theoretical derivation and empirical estimation. A further note is that in all three datasets, there were similar effects for the other dimensions, indicating consensus regarding expected rewards for inputs and abilities such as education, occupation, and age. Equation (5) includes in addition to the gender of the vignette person (genderv) and the other dimensions, the gender of the respondent (genderr) and a cross-level interaction term. In the negotiation literature, it can be seen that a systematic gender bias is inherent (Dittrich et al., 2014; Kugler et al., 2018), partly because both negotiation parties likely exhibit a double standard for men and women. doi: 10.1515/zfsoz-2009-0501, Shepelak, N. J., and Alwin, D. F. (1986). 82, 179210. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in Am. If they rated the income as unjust, respondents judged in a second step whether the income was too high or too low. The formalized evaluation can be stated as follows (Jasso, 1978): The justice evaluation J of an observer is equal to the logarithmic ratio of the actual rewards A and the just rewards C of a recipient. The vignettes of the student sample and population sample 1 were additionally presented in random order for each respondent. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. The gender pay gaps per federal state are provided by the Statistical Office of Rhineland-Palatinate (Schomaker, 2010a,b). Is Gender Socially Constructed? The first model only considers respondents under the age of thirty; the second model restricts the analysis sample to respondents with a higher secondary school degree. The data from the second population survey (population sample 2) were gathered in 2008 as part of a pretest of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP; Schupp, 2009) via computer-assisted personal interviews. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World. However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. Sociol. There exist large regional differences in gender pay gaps across federal states. In 2009 they earned 80 cents for every dollar a man earned (Hegewisch et al 2010). Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2015). J is a function of the actual earnings (A) and the characteristics being evaluated as relevant for the assessment of the just reward. Berger, J., Zelditch, M., Anderson, B., and Cohen, B. doi: 10.2307/2095506. Male students showed a tendency to favor male recipients (b = 0.021;2 = 4.10;p = 0.043), whereas female students showed an insignificant tendency to favor female recipients (b = 0.009;2 = 1.08;p = 0.299). The factorial survey method and application for studying attitudes and behavior. Webtrends in the US gender wage gap and on their sources (in a descriptive sense). If there is going to be any real change in society for gender wage, men needs to fight for the women as well and they need to fight for them. Theory 22, 432444. Past and future applications of Jasso's justice theory. Just. KEY POINTS Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. The regression Equation (4) displays the models with an attached intercept (0), a respondent-specific residual (i) and an error term iv. Evaluators perceive justice if this condition is met, and they perceive injustice (either over-reward or under-reward) if this condition is not met because expectations are violated. To test how actual inequality influences evaluations in the general population samples, the average earnings of full-time employees and the actual gender pay gap in different federal states in Germany were attached to the survey data7. Double standards for competence: theory and research. The factorial survey (Auspurg and Hinz, 2014) is a method that permits the detection of gender biases [and more generally sensitive topics, Auspurg et al. The results are presented in Table 8. Advances in experimental social psychology, in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. WebSince women are starkly overrepresented in low paid work, it would usually benefit women more dramatically. In reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate their own rewards (observer = recipient); in non-reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate the rewards of others (observerrecipient). When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group J. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.013. Psychol. The contemporary, Gender Wage Inequality And Conflict Theory. Why would some refer to this as a behavioral diagnosis? Some studies report a just gender pay gap favoring men; others do not find this gap. Equation (6) includes the vignette dimensions, the structural context (the actual gender pay gap (GPG) and the average earnings per federal state), and the cross-level interaction between the vignette person's gender (genderv) and the gender pay gap in the federal state (GPGfed.state). doi: 10.1177/0001699308090039, Jasso, G., and Rossi, P. H. (1977). J. All three of these theories have different perspectives on why gender exists. To detect gender biases in justice attitudes, it is necessary to first use a method that allows to find gender gaps. Microeconometrics Using Stata, Vol. Therefore, they also experience gender inequalities in other contexts. In a first step, I therefore investigate whether gender biases still differ between students and the general population, including additional analysis by age and educational groups, and in a second step, I analyze whether differences can be detected between employees working in German federal states with more or less gender inequality. I 've only covered a few of the issues that it creates, and there are many more. For example, only a small fraction of people evaluate themselves as being overpaid (Sauer and Valet, 2013). This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. The status value is not an intrinsic feature of a characteristic (in this case, gender) but attached to the characteristic by generally shared beliefs. Statistical Software. The social sciences students are embedded in a structural context in which relevant resources are not (or less) correlated with gender, and therefore, gender is unlikely to become a status characteristic in their daily interactions. Non-reflexive judgments are, therefore, well suited to investigate justice attitudes and unconscious gender bias in judgments [for a review of the research on non-reflexive justice attitudes using factorial surveys, see Liebig et al. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in Sci. Beliefs about inequality and perceptions of distributive justice. Model 3 indicates that male and female respondents evaluated the vignettes on average to an equal extent as being just or unjust. To illustrate the differences in evaluations between samples and male and female respondents the transformed b-coefficients estimated in Equation (5) will be presented in Figure 3. doi: 10.1177/001979390606000103. Sociol. The third model shows the coefficients of the three-way interaction with respondent's gender for male (2 = 6.17;p = 0.013) and female (2 = 3.60;p = 0.058) respondents separately. I argue that the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings is an experience-based bias that mirrors the gender inequality of the structural context in which individuals are mainly embedded. Non-reflexive judgments, on the other hand, are not affected by conflicts of justice perceptions and individuals' own interests because people judge rewards by which they are not affected (especially when people evaluate fictitious others, as is the case in factorial survey studies). ^The variations were part of a method experiment that investigated the effects of information load and fatigue during the interview. Thus, actors who experience gender inequality are more likely to activate a gender-biased referential structure in justice evaluations and therefore (unconsciously) perceive gender differences as legitimate. To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. Thus, the new scale runs from 100 to 0 to +100. Moreover, the findings can be useful for inequality research, as justice attitudes reinforce actual inequalities. It has also been found that career-people of the STEM field with young children face more "work-family" conflict, as the demands of the rigorous STEM field and those of their young children overlap. Jann, B. In federal states located in West Germany (Schleswig-Holstein to Saarland) the gap varied between 18 percent and 28 percent, while in East Germany, the gap varied between 1 and 18% (Berlin included). WebThis research report explores the gender pay gap, which is defined as the difference between the average hourly pay of men and women. 79, 226246. There are two main differences between the pretest and the SOEP main survey. Sociol. DIW Wochenbericht 87, 147152. Methodenbericht. WebPresented in the context of this study are several conceptual and theoretical frameworks, as well as examples of empirical literature, which inform, focus, and offer perspective of the study. Research shows that it is difficult to directly measure gender stereotypes due to social desirability bias and unconscious gender biases that people are unable to express directly. Frederich Engels compared thefamilystructureto therelationshipbetween thebourgeoisieand theproletariat, suggesting that women had less power than men in the household because they were dependent on them for wages. Due the end of week 7. Evidenz aus einem Vignetten-Experiment, in Erwerbsarbeit, Einkommen und Geschlecht, ed B. Jann (Wiesbaden: VS), 107126. Am. Previous studies on reflexive justice find a gap between the evaluations of men and women, with men expecting higher wages than women (Liebig et al., 2011, 2012; Valet, 2018). Conflict theorists would investigate how the interests of dominant groups create gender norms and roles, as well as how these roles help to sustain the status quo and strengthen social hierarchies. 51, 3046. Rev. Gender Differences in Social Interaction, 24. However, future research could directly test the effects of daily interactions in the workplace or within an organization, as they are important for the emergence and spread of status beliefs and for justice evaluation processes. Soc. Reward expectations are formed based on status characteristics and a referential structure. The goal was to explain the mixed results reported in previous studies on the just gender pay gap in non-reflexive justice evaluations (Jasso and Webster, 1997, 1999) by using predictions of sociological justice theories (Berger et al., 1972; Jasso, 1978, 1980; Jasso and Webster, 1997). On the issue of #MeToo would look at the balance of power and how men are much more often in authority positions that allow for such abuse to occur and go unchallenged (this is Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions and context variables by sample (full-time employees). The largest gap was measured in Baden-Wrttemberg at 28%. Available online at: https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Schupp, J. Tables 24 provide information on the correlation structure of the vignette dimensions used for the analyses. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. Questions surrounding distributive justice are part of the research program of the empirical sociological justice literature (Jasso et al., 2016; Liebig and Sauer, 2016) that has been developed over the last 50 years and now has a formalized core mapping the evaluation process. Furthermore, according to the assumed evaluation process of Equation (3), the logarithmic representation of gross earnings was used. 5:22. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00022. While the factorial survey module of the student sample and one population sample were identical, the second population sample used a different module and is used to emphasize the robustness of the findings. Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. Gender inequalitiesrefer to absolute differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women (e.g., the % of CEOS that are men vs. women), that may or may not be deserved.1Gender inequitiesspecifically refer to differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women that are undeserved given their merits or contributions WebThe Gender Conflict theory is essentially Marxist in nature, where the male figures are positioned at the upper echelon and the female figures are at the lower part. 51, 123143. Models 1 to 3 show the coefficients for population sample 1. Their interviews were not used because they did not fulfill the requirements. While certaingender rolesmay have been appropriate in ahunter-gatherersociety, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power andstatus. J. Educ. In other words, the fact that gender is socially constructed does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders. Sociol. Soc. doi: 10.1177/0730888417753048, Whitmeyer, J. M. (2004). How Expectations Organize Behavior, eds J. Berger and M. J. Zelditch (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), 215261. These referential structures are general relations between a person's states of characteristics (in this case, male or female) and respective rewards (earnings) that are activated in justice evaluations. Moreover, it was not possible for the respondents to skip vignettes. Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions by age and education (all samples). Edited by Anita Badejo and Marc Georges. In all cases, researchers compare median earnings for women versus men. Explain the three major sociological perspectives of functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. In thecontextof gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. Be sure that. Ducharme, J. Soc. With respect to this feature, factorial surveys have an advantage over justice measures of individuals' own earnings, as gender can be modeled as uncorrelated with other recipient's characteristics, e.g., occupational status and gross earnings, which are correlated in the real world. Furthermore, I assume that the status value of gender differs between the population samples and the student sample. However, as the differences are mainly differences between East Germany and West Germany, one could also argue that the differences occur due to cultural differences between people who were socialized in different systems and societies (see, Lang and Gro, 2020). WebGender pay gap The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. In the student sample and population sample 1, respondents were asked to evaluate each vignette via an 11-point rating scale. doi: 10.1177/0049124106292367, England, P., Bearak, J., Budig, M. J., and Hodges, M. J. The gender gap in negotiation may in part explain why women in the United States earned only about 83% of mens median annual earnings in 2021, according to the Institute for Womens Policy Research. The questionnaires consisted of the factorial survey module and additional questions on attitudes (after the factorial survey module) and questions on the socio-demographic background of the parents and students' personal situation. Am. Available online at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, Foschi, M. (2000). SOEPpaper No. ^The theory is based on the research of Adams (1965), Homans (1974), Berger et al. Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. If respondents rated the income as just, they were forwarded to the next vignette. First, it was assumed that people experience gender bias in their daily lives. While the reported gap differs slightly depending on the measure used, the overall pattern is very similar. In a subpopulation with resource equality, the justice evaluation of the observer should not be affected by the gender of the recipient. Women began to notice how much more men got paid for the same amount of work which went against Americas founding viewpoint that all men are created equal. Blau, F. D., and Kahn, L. M. (2003). One study was conducted with social sciences students, and two used population samples of German inhabitants. These vignette-based justice evaluations can be used to measure the independent impacts of the recipient's gender and other characteristics on the justice evaluations of observers. Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2016). Stata: Release 12. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). The second column of Table 5 shows the pay gaps by federal state. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. I thank Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, and Murray Webster Jr. as well as Guillermina Jasso and the two reviewers for critical comments and helpful suggestions. WebAccording to the Institute for Womens Policy Research (IWPR) analysis of the gender wage gap by occupation, despite progress since the 1970s, the median wage for women employed full time in 2010 was only 81% male full time worker, a gap of 19%. The effects of vocational and university degrees are also significantly negative. According to the National Committee on Pay Equity, for every dollar earned by a man, a woman made 78.3 cents in 2013 (Leon-Guerrero, 2016). A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). 15 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi-gdp-entgelt-2019-06-11-01.pdf, https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2691510, https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen, Germany. It is crucial to obtain a stable referential structure in which the comparisons are embedded. Auspurg, K., and Hinz, T. (2014). Technical report, TNS Infratest Sozialforschung, Mnchen. 62, 367380. Work Occupat. Moreover, in all survey modes, including computer-assisted personal interviews, the respondents self-administered their evaluations of the vignettes. First, all interviews in the SOEP-Pretest are programmed as computer-assisted personal interviews, in contrast to the paper and pencil questionnaires mostly used in the main survey. Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Friedhoff, S. (2015). Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. Die wirtschaftliche und soziale Lage der Studierenden in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2009. Thus, there exist remarkable differences between federal states with the strongest divide between federal states located in the eastern and western parts of Germany. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions and gender of respondent by sample. Valet, P. (2018). Verdienste 2009: Vollzeitkrfte verdienten durchschnittlich 41200 Euro. This gap causes men to believe they are superior to women, it perpetuates the stereotype that men are better than women, it objectifies all women, and leads further to the discrimination of all people. On the other hand, the tests between the student sample and population sample 1 (2 = 37.18;p < 0.001) as well as population sample 2 (2 = 49.61;p < 0.001) revealed significant differences. Labor Relat. The sampling procedure followed two steps: after sampling the vignettes, they were allocated to different decks (Jasso, 2006) that were randomly assigned to questionnaires that the respondents had to complete. Germany is a country in which a significant gender gap in earnings and income persists; therefore, the German population is an example of a structural context of substantial inequality between men and women. On many occasions, women are paid lower wages, even if the task is done the same as that of men. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. A new theory of distributive justice. Verdienstunterschiede zwischen Mnnern und Frauen. The analysis of full-time employees resembled the findings of the complete population sample. (1972), and Jasso and Rossi (1977). Moreover, three out of 81 interviewers had a tenure of one year or less and did not appear on one of the two training days. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. The legitimization of gender differences due to biased referential structures could be one reason for the slow reduction in the actual pay gap. Soc. Is Gender Socially Constructed? doi: 10.2307/2095476. The figure shows the German original version and the English translation by the author. CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. SOEPpaper No. Sauer, C. (2014a). Thus, status characteristics that refer to categorical differences, abilities or inputs are relevant for the observer to estimate the just earnings C of a recipient. Justice processes: specifying the mediating role of perceptions of distributive justice. The only exception is the gender of the vignette persons, which was not important for students but crucial for the respondents in the two population samples. Table 5. The application of factorial surveys in general population samples: the effects of respondent age and education on response times and response consistency. Given the assumption that the process can be defined as a gender bias in the referential structure, it is likely that one will find gender gaps in just earnings in evaluators judgments who are themselves embedded in gender-unequal structures, while it is likely that people who experience less gender inequality do not have these biased structures.
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