With rebellions throughout the empire, it would have been difficult for anyone to succeed in such a short frame of time. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. While he expected to have to deal with only thirty caravan guards, he encountered a Meccan force three times his size that had arrived to escort the caravan to Mecca. It was not long thereafter before Muslim raiders entered France. Second, a share of the plunder from Mahmud went to Baghdad as a gift from the Ghaznavid ruler. Finally, the Seljuks captured the fortresses of Akhlat and Manzikert. Damascus, Syria These were veterans of campaigns against both the Sasanids and the Byzantinesthese were the men that Khalid had led across the Syrian desert to fight in Syria a few years earlier. After twenty days with only a little skirmishing, the Meccans and their allies broke camp and departed. Thus when Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632 to 634, became the caliph or successor to Muhammad, he sent Khalid on several missions to quell the rebellions in what became known as the Hurub al-Riddah, or War of Apostasy. In January 624, Muhammad marched with slightly more than three hundred men toward Bedr, hoping to intercept a larger caravan returning from Syria. Make sure to include evidence from at least two different documents. The assassins were about to stab Ali when they realized their mistake; rather than risk invoking a blood feud with Alis relatives, the assassins spared his life. Although the capture of Nishapur was a bold action, Toghril Beg also courted disaster in doing so. Caliphs were initially the sole sovereigns of the empire left behind by Prophet Muhammad and added . There, Khalid brought other Arab tribes and towns under his control as well as moving north along the Euphrates to take control of the important trading nexus of Dumat al-Jandal. While initially they had just raided, over time they also cut Byzantine routes of communication by seizing the bridge that crossed the Yarmuk River. Although they had sworn allegiance to Ali, they now began to have second doubts. One of the most effective and intriguing weapons used in the Middle Ages was Greek fire. As stated from Al-Biladuri, "The Battle of the Yarmuk (636)" "Muslim forces took control of Syria in 636 CE when they fought the Eastern Roman Empire (which included Greece).". The armies of Islam quickly and easily conquered the Arabian peninsula before moving on to take the homelands of their various neighbours. The arrows and spears of the Muslims bounced off the mountain and killed most of the Moors. Early Islamic Tolerance. In addition, other rebellions broke out among the Shia and other sects such as the Kharijites. It was also nothing short of a miraculous fortune for the Arabs to have capable military leaders like Khalid ibn al-Walid in their ranks. Initially the Umayyads there claimed the title of emir or commander, which gave a token nod of recognition to the Abbasids as the titular ruler. The Muslim Empire bordered two superpowers: the Byzantine Empire (330-1453 CE) and Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE) to the north-west and north-east respectively. We contribute a share of our revenue to remove carbon from the atmosphere and we offset our team's carbon footprint. Illustration of the battle of Yarmouk (636 CE). In the battle of al-Yarmuk certain Muslim women took part and fought violently. For the most part however, there was not a unified state or confederation, but rather individuals ruling commercial towns by the oases. Yazid successfully stymied their efforts by building additional fortresses, but it prevented him from dealing with threats such as Ibn al-Zubayr. One such victim was Caliph Sulayman, who died while campaigning in Anatolia. The early Muslim expansion was ensured by both the strength the Arabs found in Islam and the circumstances under which it happened. Previously, Charlemagne had entered into discussions with representatives of Saragossa toward a peaceful transition in exchange for protection against the emirate of Cordoba. How did the early Islamic empire expand? He was honored by the caliph and recognized as the caliphs deputy. Regardless of whether or not the sand storm played a role in the battle, the end result was the same. His investiture by the caliph led to further correspondence between Ghazni and Baghdad; indeed, many of Mahmud s actions often seemed designed in order to gain recognition and legitimacy from Baghdad, or at least it was a benefit. The two amiably divided their realm between them with Ghiyath al-Din ruling from Ghur northward, while Muhammad ruled from Ghazni to India. The Arabs made few direct attacks on the Byzantine position, preferring to simply raid and fight the occasional skirmish. His son, Mahmud, served as one of his military commanders and conquered Khurasan (northeastern Iran) and part of Afghanistan. By the reign of Alp Arslan (who ruled from 1063 to 1072), the Seljuks had largely settled down, becoming sedentary rather than remaining nomads. Make sure to include evidence from at least . Even though Khalid was not with them, the arrival of their vanguard revived the morale of the Arabs. The two Muhammads met again in battle at Hezarasp. The only-one-god concept went directly against a mainstay of the Meccan economy; namely, the pilgrimage trade to the idols of Mecca. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Ali challenged Muawiya to single combat, but Muawiya excused himself from it. Some sources place him as the primary commander, while others indicate that he was a lieutenant to Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah. Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). How did the early Islamic empire expand? World History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom. A little more than a hundred years after his death, the Umayyad Caliphate stretched across the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain, becoming the largest empire ever up to that point. This was an odd match as the Lombards and Franks had clashed before. All gifts are made through Stanford University and are tax-deductible. As the Meccan atrocities became unbearable, Muslims migrated to the city of Medina, in 621 CE, where they had been invited. Muhammads depredations on the caravans had increased, so a new Meccan force of three thousand men was sent to deal with the marauders. With this defeat, Sassanian control over Iraq was shattered, the Rashidun troops soon swept over the land and even took Ctesiphon the Persian capital, ironically located far off from their power base in Khorasan, the eastern province located in modern-day Iran. Muizz al-Din Muhammad (c. 11601206), known more popularly as Muhammad of Ghur, raised the Ghurid Empirebased in the city of Ghur, located in modern Afghanistanto its pinnacle. How Did The Clothing Represent The Puritans Religious Views; How Is The History Of Ancient Egypt Usually Divided; 12 Practice Test, Social Studies American History: Reconstruction to the Present Guided Reading Workbook, Creating America: Beginnings through World War I, Allan M. Winkler, Andrew Cayton, Elisabeth Israels Perry, Linda Reed. License. Martel claimed his place in history by defeating Muslim invaders from Spain at the Battle of Poitiers (also known as the Battle of Tours). Ali had no choice but to once again go to arbitration. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/expansion-islam-600-1200, "Expansion of Islam (6001200) . Person as author : Dhammaratana, Tampalawela In : History of humanity: scientific and cultural development, v.VII: The Twentieth century, p. 103-106 Language : English Language : Russian Also available in : Franais Year of publication : 2008 The notorious general retreated southwards beyond the Yarmouk river and confronted the imperial army there. Amr, reinforced by Zubayr ibn al-Awamm (l. 594-656 CE), took on an imperial army at Heliopolis (640 CE) and secured a decisive victory. Having conquered the Punjab and destroyed the Ghaznavid dynasty that had taken refuge there, Muhammad then turned east toward the Hindu kingdoms in the plains of northern India. The winner, the Seljuks, became the dominant power in Iran, while the Ghaznavids became a peripheral state. The last Sassanian king, Yazdegerd III (l. 624-651 CE) raised another mighty army to face the Muslims, but this titanic force too was shattered in the Battle of Nahavand (642 CE). Although the Islamic world is often viewed in monolithic termsone massive entityin reality, it was too large and too divisive to exist as a single entity. However, Martel defeated various claimants to the throne and was accepted as mayor of the palace in 718. Web. Islam arose as a religious and socio-political force in Arabia in the 7th century CE (610 CE onwards). Since the Byzantines had given up on the region thereafter, victorious troops were sent to the Iraqi front to reinforce the campaign there. Although the Indian forces attempted to rally, the surprise attack proved devastating. How did Muslims expand their empire? Afterwards, the bulk of the Arab fleet was destroyed in a storm, so the siege was not renewed for some time. Although Charles was a strong supporter of the Church, it was clear that his interests lay more in the defense of his realm rather than just religion. As they retreated through the territory of the Basques, the Franks were ambushed by a Muslim force near Pamplona. Husayns rebellion was not unexpected. This volume presents a selection of the key studies in which leading scholars since the beginning of the 20th century attempt to explain the phenomenally rapid expansion of the early Islamic state during the 7th century CE. The Early Muslim Expansion is a story of sheer will and valour. Many tribes opposed the idea of dynastic rule since it violated tradition, but the event that formed a rebellion against Yazid was due to his policies. However, it would be decades before Seljuk authority dominated the region, as Alp Arslan did not take immediate advantage of the power vacuum. To make matters worse, Leo also improved the walls of the city, and one of the worst winters in Byzantine history occurred that year. "Expansion of Islam (6001200) ), and right up to the gates of Vienna, Austria. Jews and Christians were "people of the book" that deserved respect and deserved to be left alone. These were all vassals of the Ghaznavids, now ruled by sultan Masud. Five years later, Alp Arslan began to extend Seljuk dominion into Syria, capturing the city of Aleppo in 1070. The sources are murky on when the siege initiated; nonetheless, during this period the Umayyad navy seized several coastal towns in Anatolia (modern Turkey), including the town of Cyzicus on the Sea of Marmara. It is recorded that afterwards, Abd al-Rahman never personally led his armies again. As a result, Muawiya became the unofficial caliph in Damascus and Ali remained in his position in his new capital of Kufa, in Iraq. Zubayr and Talha departed Medina (the capital of the nascent Arab empire) for Mecca and found ample support against Ali. Because of communication issues, other units began to withdraw as well, and everything almost turned into a general retreat. The battle was decisive, and the large Byzantine army had been decimated. Khan, S. M. (2020, June 25). Once Baghdad was liberated, Toghril received the title of sultan. The Byzantines, already with low morale and desertions, panicked during the surprise attack and broke. Both show the Muslim forces winning, but how they reached that point is different. I don't believe it is meant to be a reliable source; it was published to challenge society's views and common knowledge about early Islamic conquests. This, however, changed as the Arabian Peninsula was united under the banner of Islam by 633 CE. This force was bolstered by new contingents from Medina periodically, as Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab sent new troops as they gathered. In Document B, the Muslim soldiers had the potential to misuse their position of authority over . World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Muslim raiding parties continued for a few years, but any advance into northern France was checked. Muhammad deceived Prithviraj by accepting the truce. The Battle of Covadonga (from the Latin Cova Dominica or Cavern of the Lady) is an example of a minor incident that gains more importance through the process of history and memory. This helps them expand Islam because once they invade; they take charge, and expand. The final confrontation for the fate of Syria occurred at a river in northern Jordan that flows through the Golan Heights and into Jordan River. The only effective Indian force was archers stationed in towers on the back of elephants. In 732, Charles countered their attacks with a resounding victory somewhere between the modern locations of Tours and Poitiers, for which he was posthumously given the title of Martel. and continuing for several millenniums. While Toghril dealt with his cousin, Besairi occupied Baghdad and removed the caliph from power. Unfortunately, the details of the battle are very vague, as sources vary widely on even the number of troops involved. Saad drew his army up in the plain of Qadisiyya. Khalid ibn al-Walid (d. 642 CE), a prominent Muslim strategist, played a pivotal role in this fight by crushing the strongest opposition force under an imposter (false prophet) named Musaylimah in December, 632 CE, at the Battle of al-Yamama. By doing so, al-Rahman placed himself on the same level of authority of the Abbasid ruler in Baghdad. The reason for this remains unknown. Then the Umayyad army marched on Mecca. (The Treaty of Tudmir). As the Rashidun armies swept over these areas, their numbers swelled with eager volunteers, and many of those who did not fight supported them indirectly. Masud was unable to recover Khurasan from the Seljuks. Muhammad Conquers Mecca & Destroys Its IdolsUnknown (Public Domain). Toghril dealt with each of his attackers in turn. As the Sasanids advanced, the elephants emerged with archers in their howdahs, (towers mounted on their backs). On October 10, 680, despite being vastly outnumbered, Husayn fought until he and his supporters were all dead. While the pass was ideal for an army, many rifts and other passes existed, thus allowing raiding parties to infiltrate Syria and pillage. In the meantime, strains between the multi-ethnic components of the Byzantine army began to show. Most converted to Islam because it was better economically, as Muslims did not have to pay a poll tax as did nonbelievers. The right flank was guarded by a spur of Mount Uhud. However, the hawk party won out and they attacked Muhammads party. In 595, the two were married. This initial expansion halted in 656 CE with the cold-blooded murder of Caliph Uthman by renegade soldiers. Even this did not secure his border. ." This was a calculated maneuver, as this fact would be in the minds of the military commanders or emirs. Having come to the throne in 1068, Diogenes had little experience in fighting the Turks, who rarely stood and fought. However, Charles Martels victory did help him secure power within France. This helped to offset the demoralizing reappearance of the Sasanid elephant corps. Resisting three thousand men was one thing, but ten thousand was quite another; there was a real possibility Medina would fall. Out of necessity, Muhammad went from being a merchant and prophet to being a military leader in order not only to defend his faith, but to defend those who joined his revolutionary religion. The Rashidun forces continued to advance northwards in the Levant and Syria. The Persian center collapsed and the Arabs reached Rustem, whom they slew. Abu Bakr had saved his Prophet's empire and religion; for this, he was hailed as a hero and his authority became unquestionable. (Also adding to this turmoil was the appearance of many new prophets, who probably hoped to emulate the success that Muhammad had.). The battle remains a centerpiece of Shia theology, known as Ashura, and is a holiday in which the martyrdom of Husayn is remembered. The Ghurid Sultans came from the Shansab family who, according to legend, were converted to Islam by Caliph Ali, who invested them with the authority to rule the region of Ghur. However, the arbitrator for Muawiya, after denouncing Ali, immediately nominated Muawiya. In this battle 24,000 Muslims took part. The next threat was from Muawiya. Most provinces recognized Ibn al-Zubayr as the caliph. The Battle of the Camel (so called because Aisha, mounted in a camel litter, encouraged her troops at the battle) took place near Basra in 656. ", 1) '24,000 Muslims took part in the war; 70,000 Greeks were killed', Do you think this document is a reliable source for determining how the caliphates expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries? The Arabs also received reinforcements from Syria. Nonetheless, the Muslims continued their siege despite the hardships. The Arab threat to Constantinople directly led to the creation of the secret weapon known as Greek fire. Later known as Sayf Allah ("the Sword of God"), Khalid initially fought against Muhammad and the early Muslim community. Toghril emerged victorious and executed his cousin. The real shift in the battle occurred behind the lines of battle. However, Yazid I is best known for his role in the rise of Shia Islam and for having a disastrous reign. The articles debate the causes for the conquest movement or expansion, the reasons for its success, the nature . After the Battle of Manzikert, most of Anatolia was also lost. Those who stayed were killed to the last man. Umar's successor Uthman (r. 644-656 CE) continued the military expansion undertaken by his predecessors. However, the Franks lacked sufficient cavalry to pursue the Muslim cavalry. For the Muslims, it was another sign that God was on their side. Two of the great empires of antiquity suffered greatly. Some of that money from conquering people and from trade went into building new irrigation systems and new canals that helped farmers get more out of their land. For the Ghurids, the victory not only allowed them to expand into India, but it allowed them to survive as the Khwarazmian Empire drove the Ghurids from Afghanistan in 1206 after the death of Muhammad of Ghur. The area around Ghur finally became a vassal as various chieftains jockeying for power sought Ghaznavid support. The Buyids (932), an Iranian Shia dynasty, controlled much of western Persia as well as Baghdad. Expansion of the Early Caliphates 632-750 CE. This title made al-Rahman not only the secular ruler, but in theory, the ultimate religious authority in the kingdom. It was established by Qutb al-Din Aybak, one of Muhammads generals, and lasted until 1526. Despite the efforts of Muawiya, who ordered the first one, the attack by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik made the more determined effort. When mediation failed, Mahmud resorted to war and defeated his brother. Thus it was weak from not only internal foment, but wars with the Bulgars and the Muslims. However, after the Moorish defeat at Toulouse in 721, governor Anbasa felt a victory was needed to restore his armys morale; crushing a minor rebellion would provide the necessary tonic. World History Encyclopedia. The tenets of this empire were to be humanitarian and its military might uncontestable. His raids began out of need, but then expanded as war broke out. With no major powers to oppose him, Toghril quickly acquired more territory. The Battle of Roncesvalles was a resounding setback for the great Frankish king Charlemagne, who ruled from 768 to 814. The conquest of Ghurid territory in Afghanistan was complete in 1215. Now in Syria, Alp Arslan was in a position to rival the Byzantine Empire. However, the expansion of Islam also spread a civilization and culture that blended not only Arab tradition and Islamic principles, but also Roman, Hellenic, Persian, Indian, and Turkic practices into a single civilization. Bereft of their Persian domains, the Ghaznavids power waned while the Ghurids became more active. Indeed, as new Turkic nomads entered his domains, Alp Arslan sent them to the Byzantine border. Ultimately, negotiations failed and the battle began. In the end, the discipline and the ardor of the Muslimswho truly saw it as a life-or-death strugglewon out. While Ghiyath al-Din had been occupied with the Khwarazmians, Muhammad campaigned in India. Muhammad Naturally, the Umayyad governor in Spain could not tolerate such actions and responded by reinforcing his garrison there. After his victory, Mahmud sent a report to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, al-Qadir Billah. Afterwards, the Muslims did not attempt to cross the Amu Darya river, except for occasional raids, while they assimilated the newly conquered territories. The World History Encyclopedia logo is a registered trademark. However, the Byzantine general did not comply. Unfortunately, the defeat made them vulnerable in other ways. The Bedouin allies of the Meccans had little desire to camp and wait out the Muslims. The actual running of the empire was handled by his vizier, or prime minister, Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian. He released Muhammad on the condition of peace. . However, Muhammad did not leave instructions concerning who should lead after his death in 632. To hasten his march, Khalid crossed the Syrian desert, thought by the Byzantines to be impassable. Masud attempted to bring the Seljuks to heel in 1040, but he was crushed at the Battle of Dandanqan. Toghrils portion of the empire was the western regions. Assisted by their equally capable brother Shihab al-Din Muhammad, the brothers competed with the nascent state of Khwarazm for dominance in the eastern Islamic world. The Byzantine army successfully recaptured Akhlat and then marched against Manzikert. In this battle 24,000 Muslims took part. 106 Words1 Page. The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period) marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE. For ambiguous reasons, he chose his son Ismail, even though Ismail possessed neither the administrative skill nor the martial abilities of Mahmud. Forced to deal with this growing menace to his realm, Masud led his army from Afghanistan toward the city of Merv. Central Anatolia was now open to attack, and this was the core recruiting ground for the Byzantines. Here he was viewed as a ghazi, as he fought various Hindu kings. Although the Frankish victory was important, it was not quite the epic victory that some historians have made it out to be. Throughout the day, the Muslim cavalry charged, but could not break the disciplined Frankish infantry. Furthermore, the Lombards encroached on lands held by the Papacy in Italy. He was also involved in raids into Byzantine territory in 629, including successfully leading a raiding party back to Medina after its commander had been killed. (April 27, 2023). Rustam thought that his numbers guaranteed him victory and for the first few days of the Battle of al-Qadisiyya (636 CE), it certainly did seem so.