If we believe that understanding whats happened in the past is important for understanding the present and thinking about the future, then these testimonies are important.. [95][96] As Jackson made clear, the purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, delegitimize the traditional German elite,[97] and allow the Allies to distance themselves from appeasement. You're the sunniest man I've ever met. It was also a way to indirectly charge crimes committed before the beginning of World War II, which the charter placed outside the court's jurisdiction. The trials, conducted at a military tribunal with judges from Allied nations including the Soviet Union, were a seminal milestone in the creation of modern international law in general and the prosecution of crimes against humanity. Judges deliberate at the trials of Nazi war criminals in Nuremberg, Germany, Jan. 1, 1945. . [232] On 11 December 1946, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously passed a resolution affirming "the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal". subscribe to Stanford Report. [82], Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial. (November 18, 2021 / JNS) A bipartisan group of the members of the U.S. House of Representatives introduced a bill on Thursday to award a Congressional Gold Medal to the last living prosecutor of the Nuremberg trials.. Look at the emancipation of woman in my lifetime. [18], At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the exact form that the trial would take. The judgement argued that aggressive war had already been illegal, even if no one had been punished for it, and therefore the German leaders could not count on immunity from prosecution. [89] Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable. This was Case #1 of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings . But Ferencz knew they were guilty and could prove it. [24][25] Although a novel construct, "crimes against humanity" covered acts that were already prohibited by the laws of most countries. General Telford Taylor, in charge of the Nuremberg trials, asked him to direct a team of researchers in Berlin, one of whom found a cache of top-secret documents in the ruins of the German foreign . [22][23] War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the laws and customs of war. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite. [230] The selectivity in trying Germans but not the Allies has garnered the most persistent criticism. . [73] Also on trial were propagandists Julius Streicher and Hans Fritzsche; Rudolf Hess, Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941; Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Governorate of Poland; Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach; Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands; and Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the leader of Himmler's Reich Main Security Office. For the subsequent trials held by the United States, see, "International Military Tribunal" redirects here. If they tell me they want war instead of peace, I don't say they're naive, I say they're stupid. Stanford University is marking the 75th anniversary of the International Military Tribunal of Nuremberg with a significant expansion of records from the historic trial. 03/Jun/2021. Boy, I felt if I'd had a bayonet I woulda jumped over the thing, and put a bayonet right through one ear, and let it come out the other. Lesley Stahl: What turns a man into a savage beast like that? 40 years on from the Majdanek trial verdict. Between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 21 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. So he finished at Harvard then enlisted as a private in the Army. Not guilty. [79] Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the Reich Cabinet, the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the Gestapo, the SA, the SS and the SD, and the General Staff and High Command of the Wehrmacht. [173] The war crimes and crimes-against-humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants who were charged being acquitted on those charges. In 1946, verdicts were handed down in the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial. [60] Conspiracy charges were especially central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists; the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of economic mobilization without which no war would have been possible. per adult (price varies by group size) Nuremberg World War 2 Tour. [132] The inclusion of Katyn in the charges undermined the credibility of Soviet evidence in general. Benjamin Ferencz: Well, I'm still a young man. Part of an artillery battalion, he landed on the beach at Normandy and fought in the Battle of the Bulge. [4], In early 1942, representatives of eight governments-in-exile in the United Kingdom issued a declaration on Punishment for War Crimes, which demanded an international court to try the Axis crimes committed in occupied countries. The film, compiled from footage of the liberation of Nazi concentration camps, shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial. Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection, Gift of Channette Alexander). Dr. Reiner Fuellmich, alongside thousands of . For the Tokyo Trial, see. The bill was introduced by Reps. Lois Frankel (D-Fla.), Joe Wilson (R-S.C.), Ted Deutch (D-Fla.), Gus Bilirakis (R-Fla.), Jim McGovern (D-Mass.) Benjamin Ferencz: Going on right this minute, yes. I was 27 years old. [141] The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trialmore than the top five defendants combined. He grew up in a tough New York City neighborhood where his father found work as a janitor. [158][136] In contrast to the opening prosecution statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this the main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations. Lesley Stahl: Did you meet a lot of people who perpetrated war crimes who would otherwise in your opinion have been just a normal, upstanding citizen? [87], Initially, it was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies. [212], The German churches, both Catholic and Protestant, were vociferous proponents of amnesty,[213] which had cross-party support in West Germany, which was established in 1949. Gabrielle Karampelas, Stanford Libraries: (650) 497-4414, gkaram@stanford.edu. [63] Jackson also rewrote the indictment with the intent of keeping the proceedings under American control by separating out an overall conspiracy charge from the other three charges. Benjamin Ferencz: You oughta get some more friends. The Nuremberg trials after World War II were historic -- the first international war crimes tribunals ever held. By exploring previous international or domestic trials, tribunals, and commissions, people from policymakers to human rights activists can see what was successful in previous investigations or prosecutions, where there were failures, and how such defeats can be avoided in the future. A Supreme Court justice led the American team of prosecutors. from. You know? Streicher was executed in 1946 by hanging along with nine other Nazis, including Hans Frank, the highest-ranking Nazi officer in occupied Poland. [211] The educational purpose of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals was a failure, in part because of the resistance to war crimes trials in German society, but also because of the United States Army's refusal to publish the trial record in German for fear it would undermine the fight against communism. Nearly 75 years ago, the Nuremberg Trial came to a close when on Oct. 1, 1946, a group of convicted Nazi leaders was sentenced by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during World War II and the Holocaust. [161][162], The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole. Benjamin Ferencz: And I start screaming. [186] These trials were held under Law No. 27 Aug 2021. (Image credit: National Archives of the Netherlands / ANP, CC0). [99] Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote German collective guilt and forcefully countered this as a strawman argument. [119] Unlike the British and American prosecution strategy, which focused on using German documents to make their case, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports and calling eleven witnesses. And you know what keeps me going? [43] The United States prosecution believed that Nazism was the product of a German deviation from Western history (the Sonderweg thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. Bus Tours. The most optimistic. Brigadier General Telford Taylor was Chief of Counsel during the Doctors Trial. Lesley Stahl: He's a savage when he does the murder though. Testimony is ultimately human narratives, and it means a lot to help keep those voices alive through time and space so that we can learn from history and hopefully better understand the implications of atrocities carried out in different cultural and historical contexts, said Penelope Van Tuyl, associate director of the Center for Human Rights and International Justice, who has also contributed to the preservation efforts and development of the Virtual Tribunals exhibit platform. [55], The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. And he said, "Can you do this in addition to your other work?" Lesley Stahl: Did you look at the defendants' faces? So you do it.". Only one piece of film is known to exist of the Einsatzgruppen at work. This is Ferencz making his opening statement in the Nuremberg courtroom 73 years ago. Transfer of the Nuremberg Trial Archives to the Peace Palace, March 14, 1950. [6] The Soviet Union wanted to hold a show trial similar to the 1930s Moscow trials, in order to demonstrate the Nazi leaders' guilt and build a case for war reparations to rebuild the Soviet economy, which had been devastated by the war. [85] The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents[40] and entered 4,600 into evidence,[87] along with 30 kilometres (19mi) of film and 25,000 photographs. Yes. But that didn't last long. I've got here mass murder, mass murder on an unparalleled scale." I'm sitting here listening to you. He says he's grateful for the life he's lived in this country, and it's his turn to give back. [69][37], The defendants, who were largely unrepentant,[70] included former cabinet ministers: Franz von Papen (who had brought Hitler to power); Joachim von Ribbentrop (foreign minister), Wilhelm Frick (interior minister), and Alfred Rosenberg, minister for the occupied eastern territories. [116] In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution emphasized how Nazi ideology and pan-Germanism had led to the Nazis' crimes, and delved into the Sonderweg theory of Germany's development in the nineteenth century. [195][196], These trials emphasized the crimes committed during the Holocaust. [66][67] The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military; and the Americans had a list of 70 names at the London Conference. Benjamin Ferencz: I don't think I'm an idealist. [115], From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence. Ferencz says his goal from the beginning was to affirm the rule of law and deter similar crimes from ever being committed again. Ron DeSantis awarded B He was proud of that. [38], In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two-thirds were from the United States. And you're very wise. The Nuremberg trials were a series of indictments and criminal procedures against Nazi war criminals that were held from 20 November 1945 to 1 October 1946 at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg, Germany.These indictments and criminal procedures were carried out by the occupying Allies following the events of the Second World War.. [146] The Nuremberg Laws were compared to discriminatory laws in the United States. [221] The IMT defendants required Soviet permission for release; Speer was not successful in obtaining early release, and Hess remained in prison until his death in 1987. [174] The judges interpreted crimes against humanity narrowly; they determined that crimes against German Jews before 1939 were not under the court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war. [106] Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from Extraordinary State Commission reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers. But the trials were already underway, and prosecution staff was stretched thin. We've had genocide since then. September 30, 2021 Stanford scholars expand digital database with historic records from the Nuremberg Trial. That's insane. Copyright 2023 CBS Interactive Inc. All rights reserved. Ferencz told us he is still haunted by the things he saw. Nuremberg Combo Tour WWII + Old Town. Benjamin Ferencz: Of course. [34][35] Located in the American occupation zone, Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of Nazi rallies. [228] The most controversial charge was crimes against peace. A high court recently . Stanford News is a publication of Stanford University Communications. [201], At the same time as the Nuremberg Charter was finalized, the Allies also signed the Potsdam Agreement, which provided for the mass expulsion of millions of Germans from central and eastern Europe, so that certain acts for which Nazis were convicted at Nuremberg were therefore made an official policy of the Allies. Their job had been to follow the German army as it invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, and kill Communists, Gypsies and especially Jews. He was carrying out his government's instructions. [52][46] The Soviet personnel's lack of knowledge of English, lack of interpreters, and unfamiliarity with diplomacy and international institutions also limited their influence. As U.S. forces liberated concentration camps, his job was to rush in and gather evidence. Jan Lemnitzer, University of Oxford. All wars, and all decent people. [110] Unlike Jackson, he attempted to minimize the novelty of the aggression charges. [52] Initially, it was planned that Iona Nikitchenko, who had presided over the Moscow trials, would serve as the chief prosecutor, but he was appointed as a judge and replaced by Roman Rudenko, a show trial prosecutor[53] chosen for his skill as an orator. Ben Ferencz in court: The charges we have brought accuse the defendants of having committed crimes against humanity. [87] In France, some verdicts were met with outrage from the media and especially from organizations for deportees and resistance fighters, as they were perceived as too lenient. Defendants-- absolutely blank. more_horiz. Although controversial at the time for their use of ex post facto law, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law established international criminal law. [6][7] Trainin's ideas were reprinted in the West and widely adopted. I hear it here for the first time." When we first reported on him back in 2017, he was 97 years old, barely 5 feet tall, and he had served as prosecutor of what's been called the biggest murder trial ever. [103], Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war. | Minds. And you're full of energy and passion. Cohen is also the WSD-HANDA Professor in Human Rights and International Justice. Benjamin Ferencz: Well, if it's naive to want peace instead of war, let 'em make sure they say I'm naive. [179], The exact sentences to be given each defendant were debated at length by the judges. On Thursday, Florida Gov. Monday, Aug. 16, 2021, in Des Moines . (JTA) At the opening of his trial in Nuremberg, Julius Streicher made several uncharacteristically friendly statements about Jews a people he had devoted his professional life to demonize. [60] The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence of the German annexation of Austria. 10 issued by the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Included in the archive are firsthand accounts from the few who survived the Nazi concentration camps, including for example Marie-Claude Vaillant Couturier, a member of the French Resistance who was imprisoned at Auschwitz and Ravensbrck. [205] Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction. [190][191] Also on trial were industrialistsin the Flick trial, the IG Farben trial, and the Krupp trialfor using forced labor, looting property from Nazi victims, and funding SS atrocities. 27 Aug 2021. Episode 10 - Too Much Paper . [204] In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial. Nearly 75 years ago, the Nuremberg Trial came to a close when on Oct. 1, 1946, a group of convicted Nazi leaders was sentenced by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) for crimes against peace . [227] The main legal criticisms of the trial focused on questions of retroactivity, selectivity, and jurisdiction. [86] Overall, the prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to the defense's 83, not including 19 defendants who testified on their own behalf. [90][91] The bringing of conspiracy charges also slowed the trial, as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both substantive and conspiracy charges. Other generals were tried in the High Command Trial for plotting wars of aggression, issuing criminal orders, deporting civilians, using slave labor, and looting in the Soviet Union. Well, see here, this-- they rounded 'em up. [224][225][226] During the two decades after the trial, opinions were predominantly negative. You know? These were people who could quote Goethe, who loved Wagner, who were polite--. At this stage of the project, users will be able to explore digital surrogates of trial records, including transcripts of the court hearings in English, French, German and Russian; case files; trial briefs; evidentiary exhibits filed by the prosecution and the defense; opening and closing statements; final pleas; procedural rules, orders, judgments, dissenting opinions and sentences. Benjamin Ferencz: Never in my life. [100], On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution. The recordings, many of them in German without translation, offer an insight into the mood, mindset and history of people like Frank and Streicher, who spoke at length about his personal history growing up in a small village in Bavaria as the youngest of nine children. Fish contaminated with "forever chemicals" found in nearly every state, CBS News Poll: How GOP primary race could be Trump v. Trump fatigue, Missing teens may be among 7 found dead in Oklahoma, authorities say, Gordon Lightfoot, "Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" singer, dies at age 84, Bob Lee died from three stab wounds, medical examiner says, At least 6 dead after dust storm causes massive pile-up on Illinois highway, Oklahoma governor signs gender-affirming care ban for kids, U.S. tracking high-altitude balloon first spotted off Hawaii, What the last Nuremberg prosecutor alive wants the world to know. A photograph shows doctors and members of the media who were hanged in the aftermath of the Nuremberg trials. [194] Luftwaffe general Erhard Milch was tried for using slave labor and deporting civilians. [46] The British chief prosecutor was Hartley Shawcross, assisted by David Maxwell Fyfe, who had been the attorney general in Churchill's government. By UPI Staff. If you are a doctor or a nurse, . [108][109], On 12 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech for the British. [126] Lev Smirnov presented evidence on the Lidice massacre in Czechoslovakia, adding that such destruction of villages had occurred throughout eastern Europe.
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